Solid-state memory capable of nonvolatile storage of charge, particularly in the form of EEPROM and flash EEPROM packaged as a small form factor card, has recently become the storage of choice in a variety of mobile and handheld devices, notably information appliances and consumer electronics products. Unlike RAM (random access memory) that is also solid-state memory, flash memory is non-volatile, and retaining its stored data even after power is turned off. In spite of the higher cost, flash memory is increasingly being used in mass storage applications. Conventional mass storage, based on rotating magnetic medium such as hard drives and floppy disks, is unsuitable for the mobile and handheld environment. This is because disk drives tend to be bulky, are prone to mechanical failure and have high latency and high power requirements. These undesirable attributes make disk-based storage impractical in most mobile and portable applications. On the other hand, flash memory, both embedded and in the form of a removable card are ideally suited in the mobile and handheld environment because of its small size, low power consumption, high speed and high reliability features.
Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) and electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) are non-volatile memory that can be erased and have new data written or “programmed” into their memory cells. Both utilize a floating (unconnected) conductive gate, in a field effect transistor structure, positioned over a channel region in a semiconductor substrate, between source and drain regions. A control gate is then provided over the floating gate. The threshold voltage characteristic of the transistor is controlled by the amount of charge that is retained on the floating gate. That is, for a given level of charge on the floating gate, there is a corresponding voltage (threshold) that must be applied to the control gate before the transistor is turned “on” to permit conduction between its source and drain regions.
The floating gate can hold a range of charges and therefore can be programmed to any threshold voltage level within a threshold voltage window. The size of the threshold voltage window is delimited by the minimum and maximum threshold levels of the device, which in turn correspond to the range of the charges that can be programmed onto the floating gate. The threshold window generally depends on the memory device's characteristics, operating conditions and history. Each distinct, resolvable threshold voltage level range within the window may, in principle, be used to designate a definite memory state of the cell.
The transistor serving as a memory cell is typically programmed to a “programmed” state by one of two mechanisms. In “hot electron injection,” a high voltage applied to the drain accelerates electrons across the substrate channel region. At the same time a high voltage applied to the control gate pulls the hot electrons through a thin gate dielectric onto the floating gate. In “tunneling injection,” a high voltage is applied to the control gate relative to the substrate. In this way, electrons are pulled from the substrate to the intervening floating gate.
The memory device may be erased by a number of mechanisms. For EPROM, the memory is bulk erasable by removing the charge from the floating gate by ultraviolet radiation. For EEPROM, a memory cell is electrically erasable, by applying a high voltage to the substrate relative to the control gate so as to induce electrons in the floating gate to tunnel through a thin oxide to the substrate channel region (i.e., Fowler-Nordheim tunneling.) Typically, the EEPROM is erasable byte by byte. For flash EEPROM, the memory is electrically erasable either all at once or one or more blocks at a time, where a block may consist of 512 bytes or more of memory.
Examples of Non-Volatile Memory Cells
The memory devices typically comprise one or more memory chips that may be mounted on a card. Each memory chip comprises an array of memory cells supported by peripheral circuits such as decoders and erase, write and read circuits. The more sophisticated memory devices also come with a controller that performs intelligent and higher level memory operations and interfacing. There are many commercially successful non-volatile solid-state memory devices being used today. These memory devices may employ different types of memory cells, each type having one or more charge storage element.
FIGS. 1A-1E illustrate schematically different examples of non-volatile memory cells.
FIG. 1A illustrates schematically a non-volatile memory in the form of an EEPROM cell with a floating gate for storing charge. An electrically erasable and programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) has a similar structure to EPROM, but additionally provides a mechanism for loading and removing charge electrically from its floating gate upon application of proper voltages without the need for exposure to UV radiation. Examples of such cells and methods of manufacturing them are given in U.S. Pat. No. 5,595,924.
FIG. 1B illustrates schematically a flash EEPROM cell having both a select gate and a control or steering gate. The memory cell 10 has a “split-channel” 12 between source 14 and drain 16 diffusions. A cell is formed effectively with two transistors T1 and T2 in series. T1 serves as a memory transistor having a floating gate 20 and a control gate 30. The floating gate is capable of storing a selectable amount of charge. The amount of current that can flow through the T1's portion of the channel depends on the voltage on the control gate 30 and the amount of charge residing on the intervening floating gate 20. T2 serves as a select transistor having a select gate 40. When T2 is turned on by a voltage at the select gate 40, it allows the current in the T1's portion of the channel to pass between the source and drain. The select transistor provides a switch along the source-drain channel independent of the voltage at the control gate. One advantage is that it can be used to turn off those cells that are still conducting at zero control gate voltage due to their charge depletion (positive) at their floating gates. The other advantage is that it allows source side injection programming to be more easily implemented.
One simple embodiment of the split-channel memory cell is where the select gate and the control gate are connected to the same word line as indicated schematically by a dotted line shown in FIG. 1B. This is accomplished by having a charge storage element (floating gate) positioned over one portion of the channel and a control gate structure (which is part of a word line) positioned over the other channel portion as well as over the charge storage element. This effectively forms a cell with two transistors in series, one (the memory transistor) with a combination of the amount of charge on the charge storage element and the voltage on the word line controlling the amount of current that can flow through its portion of the channel, and the other (the select transistor) having the word line alone serving as its gate. Examples of such cells, their uses in memory systems and methods of manufacturing them are given in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,070,032, 5,095,344, 5,315,541, 5,343,063, and 5,661,053.
A more refined embodiment of the split-channel cell shown in FIG. 1B is when the select gate and the control gate are independent and not connected by the dotted line between them. One implementation has the control gates of one column in an array of cells connected to a control (or steering) line perpendicular to the word line. The effect is to relieve the word line from having to perform two functions at the same time when reading or programming a selected cell. Those two functions are (1) to serve as a gate of a select transistor, thus requiring a proper voltage to turn the select transistor on and off, and (2) to drive the voltage of the charge storage element to a desired level through an electric field (capacitive) coupling between the word line and the charge storage element. It is often difficult to perform both of these functions in an optimum manner with a single voltage. With the separate control of the control gate and the select gate, the word line need only perform function (1), while the added control line performs function (2). This capability allows for design of higher performance programming where the programming voltage is geared to the targeted data. The use of independent control (or steering) gates in a flash EEPROM array is described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,313,421 and 6,222,762.
FIG. 1C illustrates schematically another flash EEPROM cell having dual floating gates and independent select and control gates. The memory cell 10 is similar to that of FIG. 1B except it effectively has three transistors in series. In this type of cell, two storage elements (i.e., that of T1-left and T1-right) are included over its channel between source and drain diffusions with a select transistor T1 in between them. The memory transistors have floating gates 20 and 20′, and control gates 30 and 30′, respectively. The select transistor T2 is controlled by a select gate 40. At any one time, only one of the pair of memory transistors is accessed for read or write. When the storage unit T1-left is being accessed, both the T2 and T1-right are turned on to allow the current in the T1-left's portion of the channel to pass between the source and the drain. Similarly, when the storage unit T1-right is being accessed, T2 and T1-left are turned on. Erase is effected by having a portion of the select gate polysilicon in close proximity to the floating gate and applying a substantial positive voltage (e.g. 20V) to the select gate so that the electrons stored within the floating gate can tunnel to the select gate polysilicon.
FIG. 1D illustrates schematically a string of memory cells organized into an NAND chain. An NAND chain 50 consists of a series of memory transistors M1, M2, . . . Mn (n=4, 8, 16 or higher) daisy-chained by their sources and drains. A pair of select transistors S1, S2 controls the memory transistors chain's connection to the external via the NAND chain's source terminal 54 and drain terminal 56. In a memory array, when the source select transistor S1 is turned on, the source of the memory transistor Mn is coupled to the source terminal, which is also coupled to a source line. Similarly, when the drain select transistor S2 is turned on, the drain of the memory transistor M1 is coupled to the drain terminal, which is also coupled to a bit line of the memory array. Each memory transistor in the chain has a charge storage element to store a given amount of charge so as to represent an intended memory state. A control gate of each memory transistor provides control over read and write operations. A control gate of each of the select transistors S1, S2 provides control access to the NAND chain via source terminal 54 and drain terminal 56 respectively.
When an addressed memory transistor within an NAND chain is read and verified during programming, its control gate is supplied with an appropriate voltage. At the same time, the rest of the non-addressed memory transistors in the NAND chain 50 are fully turned on by application of sufficient voltage on their control gates. In this way, a conductive path is effective created from the source of the individual memory transistor to the source terminal 54 of the NAND chain and likewise for the drain of the individual memory transistor to the drain terminal 56 of the chain. Memory devices with such NAND chain structures are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,570,315, 5,903,495, 6,046,935.
FIG. 1E illustrates schematically a non-volatile memory with a dielectric layer for storing charge. Instead of the conductive floating gate elements described earlier, a dielectric layer is used. Such memory devices utilizing dielectric storage element have been described by Eitan et al., “NROM: A Novel Localized Trapping, 2-Bit Nonvolatile Memory Cell,” IEEE Electron Device Letters, vol. 21, no. 11, November 2000, pp. 543-545. An ONO dielectric layer extends across the channel between source and drain diffusions. The charge for one data bit is localized in the dielectric layer adjacent to the drain, and the charge for the other data bit is localized in the dielectric layer adjacent to the source. For example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,768,192 and 6,011,725 disclose a nonvolatile memory cell having a trapping dielectric sandwiched between two silicon dioxide layers. Multi-state data storage is implemented by separately reading the binary states of the spatially separated charge storage regions within the dielectric.
Memory Array
A memory device typically comprises a two-dimensional array of memory cells arranged in rows and columns and addressable by word lines and bit lines, but three-dimensional (3D) arrays can also be used. The array can be formed according, for example, to an NOR type or an NAND type architecture.
NOR Array
FIG. 2 illustrates an example of an NOR array of memory cells. Memory devices with an NOR type architecture have been implemented with cells of the type illustrated in FIG. 1B or 1C. Each row of memory cells are connected by their sources and drains in a daisy-chain manner. This design is sometimes referred to as a virtual ground design. Each memory cell 10 has a source 14, a drain 16, a control gate 30 and a select gate 40. The cells in a row have their select gates connected to word line 42. The cells in a column have their sources and drains respectively connected to selected bit lines 34 and 36. In some embodiments where the memory cells have their control gate and select gate controlled independently, a steering line 30 also connects the control gates of the cells in a column.
Many flash EEPROM devices are implemented with memory cells where each is formed with its control gate and select gate connected together. In this case, there is no need for steering lines and a word line simply connects all the control gates and select gates of cells along each row. Examples of these designs are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,172,338 and 5,418,752. In these designs, the word line essentially performed two functions: row selection and supplying control gate voltage to all cells in the row for reading or programming.
NAND Array
FIG. 3 illustrates an example of an NAND array of memory cells, such as that shown in FIG. 1D. Along each column of NAND chains, a bit line is coupled to the drain terminal 56 of each NAND chain. Along each row of NAND chains, a source line may connect all their source terminals 54. Also the control gates of the NAND chains along a row are connected to a series of corresponding word lines. An entire row of NAND chains can be addressed by turning on the pair of select transistors (see FIG. 1D) with appropriate voltages on their control gates via the connected word lines. When a memory transistor representing a memory cell within the NAND chain is being read, the remaining memory transistors in the chain are turned on hard via their associated word lines so that the current flowing through the chain is essentially dependent upon the level of charge stored in the cell being read. An example of an NAND architecture array and its operation as part of a memory system is found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,570,315, 5,774,397 and 6,046,935.
3D Arrays
Non-volatile memories can also be formed according to a 3D array type structure. More detail on non-volatile memory having a 3D array structure can be found, for example, in US patent publication numbers 2012-0147647; 2013-0121078; 2013-0336037; and 2012-0147650; or such as described in T. Maeda et al., “Multi-stacked 1G cell/layer Pipe-shaped BiCS flash memory”, 2009 Symposium on VLSI Circuits, pages 22-23.
Block Erase
Programming of charge storage memory devices can only result in adding more charge to its charge storage elements. Therefore, prior to a program operation, existing charge in a charge storage element must be removed (or erased). Erase circuits (not shown) are provided to erase one or more blocks of memory cells. A non-volatile memory such as EEPROM is referred to as a “Flash” EEPROM when an entire array of cells, or significant groups of cells of the array, is electrically erased together (i.e., in a flash). Once erased, the group of cells can then be reprogrammed. The group of cells erasable together may consist of one or more addressable erase unit. The erase unit or block typically stores one or more pages of data, the page being the unit of programming and reading, although more than one page may be programmed or read in a single operation. Each page typically stores one or more sectors of data, the size of the sector being defined by the host system. An example is a sector of 512 bytes of user data, following a standard established with magnetic disk drives, plus some number of bytes of overhead information about the user data and/or the block in which it is stored.
Read/Write Circuits
In the usual two-state EEPROM cell, at least one current breakpoint level is established so as to partition the conduction window into two regions. When a cell is read by applying predetermined, fixed voltages, its source/drain current is resolved into a memory state by comparing with the breakpoint level (or reference current IREF). If the current read is higher than that of the breakpoint level, the cell is determined to be in one logical state (e.g., a “zero” state). On the other hand, if the current is less than that of the breakpoint level, the cell is determined to be in the other logical state (e.g., a “one” state). Thus, such a two-state cell stores one bit of digital information. A reference current source, which may be externally programmable, is often provided as part of a memory system to generate the breakpoint level current.
In order to increase memory capacity, flash EEPROM devices are being fabricated with higher and higher density as the state of the semiconductor technology advances. Another method for increasing storage capacity is to have each memory cell store more than two states.
For a multi-state or multi-level EEPROM memory cell, the conduction window is partitioned into more than two regions by more than one breakpoint such that each cell is capable of storing more than one bit of data. The information that a given EEPROM array can store is thus increased with the number of states that each cell can store. EEPROM or flash EEPROM with multi-state or multi-level memory cells have been described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,172,338.
In practice, the memory state of a cell is usually read by sensing the conduction current across the source and drain electrodes of the cell when a reference voltage is applied to the control gate. Thus, for each given charge on the floating gate of a cell, a corresponding conduction current with respect to a fixed reference control gate voltage may be detected. Similarly, the range of charge programmable onto the floating gate defines a corresponding threshold voltage window or a corresponding conduction current window.
Alternatively, instead of detecting the conduction current among a partitioned current window, it is possible to set the threshold voltage for a given memory state under test at the control gate and detect if the conduction current is lower or higher than a threshold current. In one implementation the detection of the conduction current relative to a threshold current is accomplished by examining the rate the conduction current is discharging through the capacitance of the bit line.
FIG. 4 illustrates the relation between the source-drain current ID and the control gate voltage VCG for four different charges Q1-Q4 that the floating gate may be selectively storing at any one time. The four solid ID versus VCG curves represent four possible charge levels that can be programmed on a floating gate of a memory cell, respectively corresponding to four possible memory states. As an example, the threshold voltage window of a population of cells may range from 0.5V to 3.5V. Six memory states may be demarcated by partitioning the threshold window into five regions in interval of 0.5V each. For example, if a reference current, IREF of 2 μA is used as shown, then the cell programmed with Q1 may be considered to be in a memory state “1” since its curve intersects with IREF in the region of the threshold window demarcated by VCG=0.5V and 1.0V. Similarly, Q4 is in a memory state “5”.
As can be seen from the description above, the more states a memory cell is made to store, the more finely divided is its threshold window. This will require higher precision in programming and reading operations in order to be able to achieve the required resolution.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,357,685 discloses a method of programming a 2-state EPROM in which when a cell is programmed to a given state, it is subject to successive programming voltage pulses, each time adding incremental charge to the floating gate. In between pulses, the cell is read back or verified to determine its source-drain current relative to the breakpoint level. Programming stops when the current state has been verified to reach the desired state. The programming pulse train used may have increasing period or amplitude.
Prior art programming circuits simply apply programming pulses to step through the threshold window from the erased or ground state until the target state is reached. Practically, to allow for adequate resolution, each partitioned or demarcated region would require at least about five programming steps to transverse. The performance is acceptable for 2-state memory cells. However, for multi-state cells, the number of steps required increases with the number of partitions and therefore, the programming precision or resolution must be increased. For example, a 16-state cell may require on average at least 40 programming pulses to program to a target state.
FIG. 5 illustrates schematically a memory device with a typical arrangement of a memory array 100 accessible by read/write circuits 170 via row decoder 130 and column decoder 160. As described in connection with FIGS. 2 and 3, a memory transistor of a memory cell in the memory array 100 is addressable via a set of selected word line(s) and bit line(s). The row decoder 130 selects one or more word lines and the column decoder 160 selects one or more bit lines in order to apply appropriate voltages to the respective gates of the addressed memory transistor. Read/write circuits 170 are provided to read or write (program) the memory states of addressed memory transistors. The read/write circuits 170 comprise a number of read/write modules connectable via bit lines to memory elements in the array.
Factors Affecting Read/Write Performance and Accuracy
In order to improve read and program performance, multiple charge storage elements or memory transistors in an array are read or programmed in parallel. Thus, a logical “page” of memory elements are read or programmed together. In existing memory architectures, a row typically contains several interleaved pages. All memory elements of a page will be read or programmed together. The column decoder will selectively connect each one of the interleaved pages to a corresponding number of read/write modules. For example, in one implementation, the memory array is designed to have a page size of 532 bytes (512 bytes plus 20 bytes of overheads.) If each column contains a drain bit line and there are two interleaved pages per row, this amounts to 8512 columns with each page being associated with 4256 columns. There will be 4256 sense modules connectable to read or write in parallel either all the even bit lines or the odd bit lines. In this way, a page of 4256 bits (i.e., 532 bytes) of data in parallel are read from or programmed into the page of memory elements. The read/write modules forming the read/write circuits 170 can be arranged into various architectures.
As mentioned before, conventional memory devices improve read/write operations by operating in a massively parallel manner on all even or all odd bit lines at a time. This “alternate-bit-line” architecture of a row consisting of two interleaved pages will help to alleviate the problem of fitting the block of read/write circuits. It is also dictated by consideration of controlling bit-line to bit-line capacitive coupling. A block decoder is used to multiplex the set of read/write modules to either the even page or the odd page. In this way, whenever one set bit lines are being read or programmed, the interleaving set can be grounded to minimize immediate neighbor coupling.
However, the interleaving page architecture is disadvantageous in at least three respects. First, it requires additional multiplexing circuitry. Secondly, it is slow in performance. To finish read or program of memory cells connected by a word line or in a row, two read or two program operations are required. Thirdly, it is also not optimum in addressing other disturb effects such as field coupling between neighboring charge storage elements at the floating gate level when the two neighbors are programmed at different times, such as separately in odd and even pages.
United States Patent Publication No. 2004-0057318-A1 discloses a memory device and a method thereof that allow sensing a plurality of contiguous memory cells in parallel. For example, all memory cells along a row sharing the same word lines are read or programmed together as a page. This “all-bit-line” architecture doubles the performance of the “alternate-bit-line” architecture while minimizing errors caused by neighboring disturb effects. However, sensing all bit lines does bring up the problem of cross-talk between neighboring bit lines due to induced currents from their mutual capacitance. This is addressed by keeping the voltage difference between each adjacent pair of bit lines substantially independent of time while their conduction currents are being sensed. When this condition is imposed, all displacement currents due to the various bit lines' capacitance drop out since they all depend on a time varying voltage difference. The sensing circuit coupled to each bit line has a voltage clamp on the bit line so that the potential difference on any adjacent pair of connected bit lines is time-independent. With the bit line voltage clamped, the conventional method of sensing the discharge due to the bit line capacitance can not be applied. Instead, the sensing circuit and method allow determination of a memory cell's conduction current by noting the rate it discharges or charges a given capacitor independent of the bit line. This will allow a sensing circuit independent of the architecture of the memory array (i.e., independent of the bit line capacitance.) Especially, it allows the bit line voltages to be clamped during sensing in order to avoid bit line crosstalk.
As mentioned before, conventional memory devices improve read/write operations by operating in a massively parallel manner. This approach improves performance but does have repercussions on the accuracy of read and write operations.
One issue is the source line bias error. This is particular acute for memory architecture where a large number memory cells have their sources coupled together in a source line to ground. Parallel sensing of these memory cells with common source results in a substantial current through the source line. Owing to a non-zero resistance in the source line, this in turn results in an appreciable potential difference between the true ground and the source electrode of each memory cell. During sensing, the threshold voltage supplied to the control gate of each memory cell is relative to its source electrode but the system power supply is relative to the true ground. Thus sensing may become inaccurate due to the existence of the source line bias error.
United States Patent Publication No. 2004-0057287-A1 discloses a memory device and a method thereof that allow sensing a plurality of contiguous memory cells in parallel. The reduction in source line bias is accomplished by read/write circuits with features and techniques for multi-pass sensing. When a page of memory cells are being sensed in parallel, each pass helps to identify and shut down the memory cells with conduction current higher than a given demarcation current value. The identified memory cells are shut down by pulling their associated bit lines to ground. In other words, those cells having higher conduction current and irrelevant to the present sensing are identified and have their current shut down before the actual data of the current sensing is read.
Therefore there is a general need for high performance and high capacity non-volatile memory with reduced power consumption. In particular, there is a need for a compact non-volatile memory with enhanced read and program performance that is power efficient.